Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) was obviously a Renaissance scholar responsible for what many have known as the “Copernican Revolution.” Among Copernicus’s most crucial contributions was in the area of astronomy. Copernicus placed the sun at the center of the universe, instead of the planet Earth. The earlier system, the Ptolemaic model, was geocentric (with the Earth at the center of the universe). In 1543, in his “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres”, he published his theory (which he had developed much earlier). Although he still had the planets moving in patterns of circles instead of ellipses, he postulated that these circles did not have a single facility. Although it would be the center of gravity and also the lunar sphere, he affirmed that the middle of the Earth is not the center of the universe. He mentioned that the Earth is one of the 7 planets of the solar system inside the Sun, which is stationary. He affirmed that the rotation of the Earth is included in the movements, the revolutions and the annual inclination of the axis. Competed with the experts before him, the distance from Earth to sunlight is negligible compared to the distance from Earth to the stars. Tycho Brahe was among the successors of Copernicus; however, the Tychonic System was essentially a geocentric model that included various mathematical underpinnings of heliocentric versions.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) designed on the foundations of Copernicus’s career. Also, a firm believer in heliocentric design, Galileo was under house arrest for much of his life for his beliefs after his trial in Rome. He was known as a heretic for thinking that the Sun, and not the Earth, was the unmoving center of the universe. In recent years the Church has recognized that its control of the Galileo case was lamentable. In 1610, Galileo published “The Starry Messenger,” which reported his discoveries of four of Jupiter’s moons, the roughness of the Moon’s surface, stars invisible to the naked eye, and the differences between the appearance of planets and the fixed stars. . He also published observations on the full range of phases of Venus and published on the tides. Galileo’s theory was that the tides were caused by the lapping of water in the seas at a location on the Earth’s surface that accelerated at certain times of the day as a result of the Earth’s rotation. However, this is incorrect (since the tides are caused by the moon). Galileo also importantly raised the fundamental idea of relativity (the rules of physics are exactly the same in any system moving at a frequent speed in a straight line). Galileo was one of the first to observe a sunspot without misattributing it to a transit of Mercury. Galileo also showed that falling bodies of material that is similar but of various masses have identical descent times. Essentially the descent time is free of mass. Galileo also showed that there are as many perfect squares as integers, although most numbers are not ideal squares; since he will find squares and non-squares, and only a few numbers are squares, there should be fewer squares than non-square numbers. However, for every number there is a square. Therefore, there is in fact a 1:1 ratio of non-squares to squares.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) is responsible for producing Kepler’s regulations of planetary motion. These laws include that the orbit of each earth is an ellipse together with the Sun between the two foci, that a line connecting the Sun and a planet sweeps out equal parts for equal times of time, that the square of the orbital time of any planet is specifically proportional to the cube of a semi-major axis of its orbit. Kepler was one of the first to add the area of physics and also the field of astronomy. This sparked some controversy, however his concepts became widely read and accepted after his death. Once Newton derived Kepler’s laws from a common principle of gravitation, they became part of the theoretical canon of the Scientific Revolution.